12. Articles used in Daily Life

Dress

Jesus' contemporaries seem to have used various types of clothes of different origin. Some ancient Semitic customs made themselves felt, but at the same time new ways of dressing had come in from the Greek and Roman world. There must have been a wide variety of styles.

The simplest garment was a LINEN CLOTH. This could be worn as a loin­cloth, such as we know it or could be thrown round the body and slung over the shoulder by one end. Jesus put on such a cloth when washing the disciples' feet (Jn 13:4). The young man who fled from the guards was wearing this garment (Mk 14:51). We find it also used for other purposes: for keeping money (Lk 19:20) and for wrapping round the head and limbs of corpses (Jn 11:44; 20:6-7).

Many people wore a SHIRT or short tunic on their body. It reached to the knees. It was the dress most suited for ordinary work. When anyone was dressed with only this 'shirt' on, he was considered 'naked'. In this way Peter is called naked because he has put off his cloak while fishing (Jn 21:7). The phrase: "I was naked and you have clothed me" (Mt 25:36), refers to a poor man who only had a shirt.

Instead of this shirt many others would wear a LONG TUNIC. Perhaps, this was the most accepted everyday dress (or rather under-clothing). This tunic often had sleeves, as shown on the picture , and it reached the ankles. The front was opened all the way down and in the middle it was held together by a GIRDLE. In all respects it looked like a cassock except for the variety of colours that could be used.

For travel or work the lower end of the tunic would be girded up (by tucking it under the girdle). When Jesus says: let your loins be girded', He means 'be ready for action' (Lk 12:35; cf. also Lk 17:8). Jesus foretells that someone else will "gird" Peter, to express that Peter will be forced to go to the place of his martyrdom (Jn 21:18).

The tunic was often pulled up at the girdle and so a natural pocket could be made. This is what Jesus means when He says that His disciples should not carry money 'in their girdles' (Mt 10-9- Mk 6:8).

Rich people would, at times, wear TWO TUNICS, perhaps a long tunic with a short one underneath. John the Baptist says that those who have two tunics should give one to 'him who has none' (Lk 3:11). Jesus forbids His disciples to wear two tunics on their apostolic journeys (Mt 10:10; Mk 6:9; Lk 9:3). It may be that Christ was referring to the taking along of an extra tunic in reserve.

The most important outer garment was the Mantle or Cloak: It was usually made of wool, or camel hair, or even sheepskin, so that it offered sufficient protection against the cold. The mantle was the official dress for occasions of social importance. It expressed a man's social status.

The mantle was a square piece of cloth, that was normally a combination of two long strips sewn together. After the two strips had been sewn together, the two extremities (left and right) would be folded over, the top ends being stitched together. After holes had been made at the sides, to allow the arms to come through, the mantle could be worn.

It is interesting to know this, as we are told in the Gospel (Jn 19:23) that the soldiers under the cross did not divide Our Lord's mantle They saw that it was something special: "It was made of one piece of woven cloth without seams in it"— This means that Jesus' mantle had not been made from two narrow long strips, such as we explained above

The mantle was, by far, the most precious garment. This throws light on many gospel passages:
—one should not spoil a good (old) mantle by putting an unshrunk patch on it (Mt 9:16ff);

—people try to touch Jesus' mantle in order to be cured (Mt 9 20f; 14:36; Mk 5:27ff.);

—at the Transfiguration Jesus' mantle becomes whiter than snow (Mt 17:2, Mk 9:3)

—the people laid their mantles before Jesus' feet at the triumphant entry (Mt 21:7);

—Jesus warns regarding the fall of Jerusalem (and the last judgement): 'If it happens while you work in the field (with only a tunic on) flee without going home to take your mantle with you!' (Mt 24:18; Mk 13:16).

—Jesus says: "If someone wants to take your tunic (the lesser garment), give him also your mantle (the more precious garment)" (Mt 5:40).

—The madness of the demoniac is expressed by the statement that he went about without mantle (Lk 8:27). After his cure people find him properly dressed (Mk 5:15).

—Kings have very costly mantles. Jesus refers to this when speaking of John the Baptist (Lk 7.25). Jesus is mocked as king with a purple mantle thrown over his shoulders (Jn 19:2'ff).

The Pharisees used special prayer mantles which were draped over the head. Moreover, at the corners of such mantles they made special fringes . A small square patch of silk was attached to the corners. Through a hole in the middle, a fringe of eight threads and five knots was made. "Fringe" in Hebrew is "sisith" which has the numerical value of 600. With the 8 threads and 5 knots it becomes 613. This number expressed all the commandments, according to the law. Kissing the fringe thus became an expression of love to the scribes. Jesus chides the Pharisees for attaching much value to such external 'fringes' without a genuine inner sanctity (Mt 23:5).

Every Day Food

The main food of the Jews was BREAD, which was made from wheat or barley. The process of making bread was so well known to the Jews that Jesus often refers to it in His teaching. He speaks of the two "women at the mill grinding meal: one will be taken away, the other will be left behind" (Mt 24:41). This expresses the unexpectedness of the last judgement. The flour then had to be leavened. Jesus speaks of the woman who has to leaven a bushel of flour with yeast, "until the whole batch of dough rises" (Mt 13:33). In the same way His doctrine will slowly transform the world. The leavened dough was then made into flat cakes which in turn were spread on a heated stone. After the miraculous catch of fish, the apostles eat near such a stone by the Lake of Galilee (Jn 21:9; ). The bread was taken off as soon it had been baked properly, and was preferably eaten warm.

Since bread formed the principle food, the word is simply identical for 'food'. This explains the phrases "Give us today our daily bread" (Mt 6:11 ); and "Man will not live on bread alone" (Mt 4:4); and why Jesus chose bread for the Eucharistic meal. This was the normal food, as seen in the preparatory miracles of the multiplication (Mt 14:17ff.), in Jesus, preparatory speech "I am the Bread of Life"(Jn 6:32ff.), at the Last Supper itself (Mt 26: 26). The symbol of "bread" expresses, therefore, very clearly that Jesus becomes the ordinary, daily (spiritual) food of His followers.

The bread was not cut, but broken with the fingers (Mt 14: 19; 15:36; 26:26). One took a piece with the right hand and dipped it in a sauce (Mt 26:23). Passing such a piece to someone else was considered a token of friendship (Jn 13:26).

The Jews ate only twice a day (both meals being mentioned in Lk 14:12). The first meal was taken between 10.00 and 12.00 o'clock. It consisted of bread, fruits and milk. At this meal one did not normally eat meat or drink wine (cf. Acts 2:15). The second meal was taken in the evening. It comprised bread, wine and some heavier dishes, such as fish (Mt 7:10; 14:17; etc.), eggs (Lk 11: 12) and meat (Lk 15:29-30). Poor people would eat locusts (as John the Baptist, Mt 3:4; but the point in John the Baptist's penance is that he depends on irregular food, namely locusts and wild honey, which one is not always sure to find).

Jesus' contemporaries prayed before and after meals. We are told of Jesus praying in this fashion more than once (Mt 14:19; 15:36). The Jews were so particular about this point that the Scribes used to discuss what one should do if one had forgotten to say grace before meals. Some maintained that one should then return to the place where one had eaten to make up for the omission.

Jewish parents looked after their children well. Jesus' words about prayer would, therefore, deeply impress them: "Would anyone of you, fathers, give his son a stone, when he asks you for bread (Mt 7:9) Or would you give him a snake, if he asks you for a fish? (Mt 7:10; Lk 11:11) Or would you give him a scorpion when he asks for an egg?" (Lk 11:12)..

"Bad as you are, you know how to give good things to your children! How much more, then, will your Father in heaven give good things to those who ask Him!" (Mt 7:11) Notice: the "good things" are things we need.

Official Meals

Not only at feasts, but also for practical purposes the Jews used to hold official dinners to which a certain number of persons was invited. Such an official meal was considered the appropriate occasion for discussion and instruction, and Our Lord made frequent use of the opportunity thus given.

These official meals were arranged according to a well-set pattern. The guests did not sit, but were "lying at table" (see Mt 9:10, Lk 7:36; Jn 13:23). Special 'couches' or beds were made for this purpose, on which the guests stretched themselves out, with their feet away from the table, and resting on their left elbow. Food was taken with the right hand, from the low table that had been put in front of the couch. We know from historians that there normally were three couches (triclinium), arranged in such a way that the servants could approach the tables from the fourth side. On each couch three or four guests could take a place. There was a strict order of precedence: not only were the three couches different in standing, but on each couch the places were ranked as 'high', middle' or low'.

This arrangement at public meals throws much light on a number of Gospel passages:

—Jesus chides the Pharisees for wanting the "first places" (the protoklisia) at feasts (Mt 23:6). This first place was the place of honour, 'high' on the highest couch .

—Jesus gives the warning not to go and take this 'first place' on one's own accord. Otherwise the host might suggest a 'lower' place to one's own disgrace. Jesus says: 'Go and sit in the lowest place' (this means 'low' on the lowest couch). Then the host would say 'Go higher up, friend.' (Lk 14:7-10) A beautiful example of how we should 'humble ourselves' (Lk 14:11).

—We can also understand how Mary Magdalene could 'wash our Lord's feet' and 'anoint' them. (Lk 7:36-50) She approached Jesus from the far end of the couch where his feet were. Jesus first acts as if he does not notice it - and begins a discussion with Simon about forgiveness. (Lk 7:40-43) Then he applies the teaching to Mary and sends her home with a blessing. (Lk 7:44-50)

—Two Apostles are sent by Jesus to prepare a room for the last supper. They have to arrange for a room that is 'spread', 'furnished'. (Mk 14:15) The furnishing meant here is precisely the arrangement of the three couches as explained before. Of course, they would have to utilise large couches so that all the twelve apostles could be accommodated as Jesus' guests.

—From St. John's description of the conversation at the Last Supper (Jn 13-14) we can more or less reconstruct the order in which the Apostles reclined at table. St John was sitting at Our Lord's right side. Since he rested on his left elbow, he could, by leaning back, 'recline at Our Lord's bosom' (Jn 13:23; 21:20) Jesus gives a piece of bread to Judas (Jn 13 25), after Peter had given a sign to John across the table

Lamps

Inside the house the Jews used oil lamps. This required four pieces of equipment : a jug of oil, a lamp stand, a little lamp with a cotton wick. The lamps for inside the house were flat and without a handle.

These lamps did not give much light, but one had the maximum of benefit if they were put on the lampstand. So we should make our light shine before men (Mt 5:15) John the Baptist is also called a 'lamp' by Jesus (Jn 5:35).

Outside the house one carried torches , that is: iron holders in which a burning piece of wood could be inserted . Such torches were used by the soldiers who arrested Jesus (Jn 18:3) But also oil lamps could be carried, if they had a handle. In Jesus' time the Roman lamp was also popular in Palestine. When Jesus says that we are to be ready like servants 'holding the lamps lit' (Lk 12:35), He is thinking of such lamps. Again, the ten virgins who were invited for the marriage had such lamps with them. But the foolish virgins had forgotten to take oil with them. (Mt 95:1-13).

Making Fire

We are so accustomed to the luxury of matches that we never think of the trouble people had to take formerly in order to 'light a fire'. In Jesus' time people made a fire by rubbing wood, one piece against another. They had a little instrument for this. A piece of hard wood was fitted into the lower end of the main shaft . With the left hand one held the knob that slipped over the top of the shaft. The hard wood underneath was put into a hole of a soft plank; and by means of a stretched rope, which was held in the right hand, the shaft was made to turn by moving the rope backwards and forwards. By the friction of the hard wood in the soft wood the soft wood would start to glow. This fire was then caught with reeds and transferred to where fire was needed. Fire making was an elaborate job, often presupposed in the Gospels (Lk 22:55). Jesus also came to 'make a fire on the earth' in a spiritual sense (Lk 12:49) and to give a 'baptism of fire' (Mt 3:10-11).

Keys and Locks

In Our Lord's time the locks had not yet been developed to the extent we may, perhaps, think. Locks were very clumsy and large things, used only for very important closures, such as the main doors or gates of great buildings. The locks did not work by turning, but by sliding. Two halves of a cross-bar were nailed to the two parts or doors of the gate. Where the ends came together, the cross-bars had been hollowed out, so that a smaller piece of iron or wood could slide across . When the piece had been made to slide across , it was held by nails which fitted into holes of the sliding piece. The key could then be slipped underneath this piece to push the nails out and so unlock it. Jesus thinks of such "keys" when He promises the keys of the Kingdom to Peter (Mt 16:19) and when He accuses the Pharisees of having the keys to wisdom, but locking the doors to prevent people from entering (Lk 11:52)

Agricultural Tools

The most important agricultural tool was the plough . The ordinary people used very simple models. The central beam could be attached to the yoke in front. At the other end the beam bent into the share, which could be armed with different types of points. The plough was held from behind by a special handle. With such a loose plough it was absolutely necessary that the farmer pay constant attention to the work. A farmer who 'looked back' after having 'put his hand to the plough' could not produce good work. In the same way those who want to follow Christ have to do so with undivided commitment (Lk 9:62).

The yoke was really part of the plough. It was laid on the oxen's or buffaloes' necks so that the plough could be pulled by it. In Jesus' time yokes were of a simple design: there was a cross beam with ropes on the sides to tie the yoke to the animals' necks. The yoke became the symbol of burdens put on people. Jesus also imposes obligations, but His yoke is easy and His burden light (Mt 11:29-30).

When the corn had been harvested with a sickle, it was threshed. This could be done with sticks (a small quantity) or by a threshing sledge Such a sledge was a heavy piece of wood with iron pins underneath, which - with the farmer standing on top - was pulled over the corn by oxen. The chaff was then separated from the grain in two stages. The threshed material was thrown up against the wind with winnowing shovels or forks. The grain would fall down straight, whereas most of the chaff would be blown aside. Whatever remained of the chaff could be eliminated by a process of sieving (big grain sieve,). This whole process of threshing, winnowing and sieving is implied when John the Baptist says: "He (the Messiah) has his winnowing shovel with Him to thresh out all the grain" (Mt 3.12; Lk 3:17). The Greek also implies the purification of sieving.

The parable means: as a farmer carefully selects the good elements (by threshing, winnowing and sieving), so the Messiah will select the good people. "He will gather His wheat into His barn (heaven), but burn the chaff in a fire that never goes out ( hell )."

For practical purposes in the home, a smaller type of sieve was used. Such a strainer or sieve helped to purify oil, wine and various drinks. Jesus characterizes the unbalanced attitude of the Pharisees by saying "You strain a fly out of your drink, but swallow a camel!" (Mt 23:24).

Our Lord: The Carpenter

We know that St. Joseph (Mt 13:55) and Jesus Himself (Mk 6:3) exercised the profession of carpentry in Nazareth. What kind of work did Jesus do as a carpenter? In extraordinary circumstances, He may have helped in the building of houses (doors, cross-beams, etc.) . But His ordinary work was the making and repairing of everyday articles and tools; especially ploughs and yokes (as St. Justin tells us); also, winnowing forks, threshing sledges, tables and couches, lamp stands; and perhaps, even more complicated articles such as locks and fire making instruments.

Weights and Measures

Measure of length

CUBIT: The Cubit was the length 'from the elbow to the extremity of the middle finger'. In our units it equals a length of 18 inches or 45 cm (almost half a metre). Jesus says: "Who of you can by worrying add a cubit to his 'helikia'?" In Greek, helikia may mean either 'height' or 'span of life'. There are therefore two possible interpretations: (Mt 6:27; Lk 12:25).

—"Who can add one cubit to his stature?"
—"Who can add one cubit to his life's duration?"

The second interpretation is the more likely one, because few are worried about becoming taller , but many are worried about living longer!

A DAY'S JOURNEY: People reckoned distances by saying it was so many day's travelling". We are not sure if such an indication of distance is meant in Lk 2:44: "Mary and Joseph travelled a whole day, then they started looking for Him". It may simply indicate the time in this case (i.e. after one day). If a distance, it would amount to 10 to 15 miles.

STADION: This was a Greek measure, derived from the length of the famous foot-race course at Olympia. 202 yards or 185 metres.
—Before Jesus came walking to them over the water, the Apostles had rowed "twenty-five to thirty stadia", that is: "three or four miles". (Jn 6:19)
—Bethany was about "fifteen stadia" from Jerusalem, that is: about two miles. (Jn 11:18)
—Emmaus about "sixty stadia" from Jerusalem, that is: about seven miles. (Lk 24:13)

Measures of capacity

COR or HOMER: Amounted to 100 gallons ( 12 1/2 bushels) or 450 1itres. The creditor owed "a hundred homer of wheat" (Lk 16:7). In our calculation it would amount to 45,000 kilos.

BATH: Amounted to 10 gallons or 45 litres. Another creditor owed 'a hundred bath of oil' (Lk 16:6) This was the equivalent of 4.500 litres.

METRETE: A Greek measure for liquids: 88 gallons or 39.4 litres. The six jars at Cana held each "two or three metretes" (Jn 2:6). The total contents were then 600 litres.

SEATH: A 'measure' of corn equalling 3.5 gallons or 15 litres. The woman of the parable mixed leaven in "three seaths of meal" (Mt 13:33; Lk 13:21). This amounts to 45 kilograms, which is a good quantity! The little leaven permeates it all!

MODION: A very common measure for grain. It contained 2 gallons or 8.75 litres. Every farmer had a little basket in his house which corresponded to this measure. That is why Jesus says that no one lights a lamp to put it under this 'Basket' or under the couch, but on the lampstand (Mt 5:15; Mk 4:21; Lk 11:33).

XESTES or LOG: A common measure for liquids, containing about half a litre. People would have a little bronze vessel of this size at home. Mark mentions that the Pharisees washed such vessel on the outside before eating (Mk 7:4-8).

Money, Coins and Values

Archeologists have been able to determine quite accurately the value in gold or silver of the coins used in Palestine during Jesus' time.

TALENT: Originally the talent was a weight of 34 kilograms of gold. In Jesus' time the word 'talent' was used for a value of money equivalent to 4.5 kilos of silver. The man gave money to his servants to trade with: to one - five talents , to another -two talents and to the third- one talent . Cf. Mt 25:14-30. Note: all three of them received a good capital sum! The unforgiving servant owed his master 10,000 talents (Mt 18:24) Let us realize how much Our Lord stresses man's debt to God.

STATER: Its silver value was 3 grams. Judas sold Our Lord for 30 staters,(Mt 21:27; 26:15). This was the official price of a slave.

DIDRACHMA: It equalled half a stater. The Temple tax was a didrachma for each person (Mt 17:24). Through the miraculous catch Peter finds a stater in the fish's mouth, and so he can pay for Christ and himself (Mt 17:26).

DRACHMA or DENARIUS: The silver value of this coin amounted to 0.75 grams of silver, by the official silver standard. In Jesus' time this was the ordinary daily wage of hired servants. The labourers in the vineyard have, therefore, no reason to grumble (Mt 20:2). The unforgiving servant, who himself had a debt of 10,000 talents (see above) took his fellow servant by the throat as he owed him "a hundred denarii", (Mt 18:28). It is obvious that our Lord wants to contrast the great debt we owe to God and the smallness of the debt other people owe us. The drachma was also the official universal tax coin in the Roman Empire, bearing the Emperor's image and inscription. That is why Jesus asks for this coin in connection with the question of taxes (Mt 22:15-22).

ASSARION: A small bronze coin with a silver value of one eighth of a gram. Jesus said: "Are not five sparrows sold for two assaria? And not one of them is forgotten before God!...but you are of more value than many sparrows!" (Lk 12:6-7; Mt 10:29).

LEPTON: The smallest coin. It was made of bronze, and square. The poor widow in the Temple threw "two lepta" in the sacrificial box, and yet Christ said she had given more than all the others, "because she gave everything she had" (Mk 12:41-44). Jesus warns us to make peace with our accuser (fellow men) before we are taken to court (God's judgement). Because, if we wait till then (after death), we will have to pay the full amount "upto your last lepton", (Mt 5:26; Lk 12:59)!

Of course, the standard of living was different in Our Lord's time , but these values will make us see better the message which Christ wants to teach in His examples. Wasn't He a wonderful teacher that He could explain the sublime principles of His doctrine in such simple examples, taken from people's everyday experience?