9. Religious Leadership of the Jews

The Origin of Opposed Religious Groups

We have seen that at the time of Jesus, Palestine was politically under the dominion of Herod's dynasty and of the Romans. The culture of the Greeks and the Romans, with their arts, their sports, their democratic institutions and their literature, had also made an impact on Palestine. Certain cities, such as Sebaste (Samaria ), Sephphoris, Scythopolis, Caesarea and Tiberias were constructed as Greek cities. Such towns even possessed Greek and Roman temples where gods from all parts of the Roman Empire were worshipped. Many Jews who studied at famous schools of learning felt attracted to this Greek and Roman culture, and, obviously, some would seek to imitate it.

In the foregoing centuries the Jewish people had suffered cruel persecutions under the Syrian kings who wanted to force them to accept Greek culture and Greek polytheism. Especially Antiochus Epiphanus ( 175-164 BC) condemned and executed many orthodox Jews. The Books of the Maccabees tell us of their heroic martyrdom, and of the liberation wars that arose as a consequence of the persecutions. It was in this tremendous spiritual as well as political struggle that a group of zealous orthodox Jews came to the fore: the Pharisees. Much of the leadership that had so far been enjoyed by the priestly classes now passed to the Pharisees. In Jesus' time there was no external persecution, but the pressure from Hellenism (Greek culture) could still be felt. In fact another influential group of Jews was inclined to attempt a compromise with Greek culture: the Sadducees. Religious leadership in the Jewish community thus resided mainly with these three groups which could be represented in this fashion:

The priestly class were Sadduces : high priests, priests and levites.

The theologians and teachers of law: these were Pharisees - many of whom were scribes.

The Sadducees counted quite a few priests and highpriests among their ranks. Yet they have to be considered a separate group since they also included outstanding lay people.

The Priestly Classes --- Highpriests, priests and levites.

Among the twelve tribes of Israel one tribe, the tribe of Levi, had been chosen to perform priestly functions in the Temple. This did not mean that all Levites could offer sacrifices. The family of Aaron was elected to do this (Lev. 8-9). As time went on, even within the family of Aaron only one particular branch was entrusted with the most sacred rites, namely the clan of Zadok (see 1 Kgs. l :26-27; 4:2). When the Jews returned from their Babylonian exile only those descendants from Zadok were recognised as priests who could prove their genealogy (see Neh 7; esp. 7:63-65). Those who could prove their descent from Zadok were sub-divided into twelve classes.

But it was not enough to have one's origin from the priestly line. At the time of Jesus only certain men were selected for the sacrificial functions. A special commission investigated each application, and only those members of Zadokite families were accepted who had reached a definite social and intellectual standard. Usually young men would be taken from a small number of favourite families. Only to these the priestly ordination would be given. This ordination was an impressive ceremony. The candidates purified themselves in a ritual bath. They were then dressed in white linen and anointed with oil. They were made to offer three sacrifices: one bull and two rams. The consecrating priests took some of the blood of the last sacrificed, mixed it with oil, and anointed the candidate with it on the right ear, the right thumb and the right foot. He then made the candidate sit down and put into his hands and on his knees some of the ram's fat, some unleavened bread and a cake of flour and oil. This cake was then taken and burnt upon the altar.

Once a priest had heen ordained, he shared in the duties and privileges of the priestly class.

—When his group's turn came, he would go to Jerusalem and help in the priestly ministry of sacrifice. Zacharias, John the Baptist's father, received his vision in the Temple while he was there on duty. (Lk 1:5-23)

—The priests were allowed to eat the shewbreads tnat were kept on a table in the holy place (Mt 12:4;)

—On the day of rest, the Sabbath day, the priests were allowed to to work in the Temple. Jesus uses this as an example of how a law (the Sabbath law of rest) is suspended by a higher law (sacrifice in the Temple; Mt 12:5).

—The priests could declare lepers cured and could perform for them the purification sacrifice. Jesus sends some lepers who were cured to the Temple for this purpose (Mt 8:~; Lk 17:14).

—Before offering sacrifice the priests had to be absolutely clean, that is 'ritually clean'. For instance, they should not have touched a dead person. In the parable of the Good Samaritan we hear Jesus say that a priest and a Levite passed by without giving help to the wounded person. It is quite possible that we have to explain this action on the part of the priest and the Levite as fear to become 'ritually unclean' by helping the wounded man. But, of course, this is a great mistake. For charity is more important than the rules of ritual cleanliness before sacrifice. (Lk 10:31-32)

—Some priests lived in or near the Temple buildings. They were overseers who had fixed duties in organizing the labour done by the Levites, such as the cleaning of the Temple buildings, the transport of the required materials, the guarding of the precincts and so on. One person had the job of being the officer in charge of the Temple guards (Acts 4:1). It may have been this priest who was sent with his guards to arrest Jesus in the garden of Gethsemane. (Mt 26:47; Jn 18:3)

Strictly speaking there was only one "Highpriest" who was responsible for the total suspension of the Temple services and who performed certain exclusive functions ( such as entering the Holy of Holies on the day of Atonement).

But in the Gospels we often find the "Highpriests" mentioned as a group. The reason for this becomes clear from what we know about the highpriesthood in those years. The Romans were very much aware of the great influence the highpriest had among the people, and so they appointed only such men to that office as suited them. Highpriests who failed to please them were deposed. In this way quite a few men had been highpriests for some time, and, they kept a certain standing and had much influence on this account. Moreover, these 'highpriests' were usually taken from the same families, so that they really formed an influential group.

The most prominent family during Jesus' life-time was the family of Annas. After having been highpriest himself for some years (7-11 AD), Annas saw five of his sons become highpriests. Caiaphas, appointed highpriest by the Roman procurator Valerius Gratus (18 AD) and deposed by Vitellius (36 AD), was Annas' son-in-law. Caiaphas, also known as Joseph Caiaphas, was highpriest for all these nineteen years with only brief interruptions. Although Annas had been deposed in 11 AD he still maintained an unrivalled position as the head of this 'highpriestly family'.

—That is why LUKE can say so rightly that John the Baptist began to preach "while Annas and Caiaphas were highpriests" (Lk 3: 2). Caiaphas actually was the highpriest, but his father-in-law had maintained active control of the situation. In actual fact, Annas, the old man, was 'highpriest' just as much as Caiaphas.

—That is why, after Jesus' arrest, Annas was the first to interrogate Jesus. Only after this inquiry did Annas send Jesus to Caiaphas (Jn 18:1-24). On paper Caiaphas had the highpriestly dignity in actual fact Annas dominated.

—That is why in the process against St Peter and St John Annas figured as the main opponent. (Acts 4:6) We may understand the influence of his family if we read the report:

"The next day the Jewish elders and leaders, and the teachers of the law met in Jerusalem. They met with the Highpriest Annas, and Caiaphas, and John, and Alexander, and the others who were members of the Highpriest's family". (Acts 4:5-6)

Annas played a large part in the opposition to Jesus. He was Jesus' leading adversary in the highpriestly group, but also Caiaphas too had a personal share in the persecution of the Saviour. John tells us that it was Caiaphas who suggested for the first time that Jesus should be killed. Some had pointed out:

"If we let Jesus go on in this way everyone will believe in Him, and the Roman authorities will take action and destroy the Temple and our whole nation!"

To this Caiaphas said:

"Don't you know a solution? Don't you realize it is better for you to have one man die for the people, instead of the whole nation being destroyed?"

Caiaphas, therefore, suggests that Jesus should be killed to forestall political difficulties. This fits very well with Caiaphas' pro-Roman sympathies he wasn't kept as highpriest for so long without reason! St. John points out that Caiaphas was making a prophetic statement when saying that Jesus "was to die for the people", not in the sense meant by him (instead of the people's defeat by the Romans) but in a far deeper sense (instead of the people's punishment by God).

Caiaphas also showed himself a capable diplomat during Jesus' trial. He desperately wanted a juridically valid reason for condemning Jesus to death. When the accusations of the false witnesses failed, he tried to make Jesus utter a compromising statement. His solemn question "in the name of the living God", spoken by him as highpriest "I put you on oath: tell us if you are the Messiah, the Son of the living God", challenged Jesus to a reply. In a very dignified manner Jesus declared Himself equal to God. God's Son, sent as Redeemer and one day to return as Judge. It is tragic that Caiaphas, who as highpriest should have been the first to accept and welcome Jesus, used this statement as the ground on which Jesus was condemned to death (Mt 26 59-66).

Little did Annas and Caiaphas realize that they were standing, before the new Highpriest of all time. Their sacrifices and ministries would end for good with the total destruction of the Temple in 70 A.D. A new sacrifice had been instituted by Jesus, the Eucharist (Mt 25:26-30; Mk 14:22-26; Lk 22: 15-26; 1 Cor 11: 23-25), which was the symbolical reiteration of His great sacrifice on the cross (Jn 12:23-24, 32; 10:17-18; etc.). The old Aaronitic priesthood with all its institutions had thereby come to an end.

Sadducees

Among the upper classes, the rich and the noble families, quite a few persons tried to be 'modern' and 'up-to-date' by encouraging Greek customs and art. After some time these groups became known as Sadducees (from Zadokites), since a considerable number belonged to the priestly families.

Sadducees enjoyed Greek sports. They gladly frequented Greek buildings and took pride in studying Greek literature. In general they wanted to be broad-minded and not to be nationalistic with regard to art, poetry and culture.

The Sadducees also restricted their faith to the doctrine contained in the Pentateuch. They considered many later teachings (on the resurrection of the body, on angels) and later moral practices as superfluous to the Jewish religion.

The Sadducees taught that we must not rely one-sidedly on God's providence. Man himself should try to solve his difficulties and not put the blame for everything on prayer or lack of prayer.

The Sadducees commonly acquiesced in Roman rule. They thought cooperation with the Romans the best policy. Caiaphas was a Sadducee, and as we have seen, he tried to keep peace with the Romans. The exclamation "The only king we have is the Emperor" (Jn 19:15) could only be made by Sadducees!

The SADDUCEES were a small group of independent thinkers. In some cases they went too far and fell into indifferentism and scepticism. They were not liked by the people, and were positively hated by the Scribes and Pharisees. On one occasion Jesus argues with the Sadducees about the resurrection of the dead. The Sadducees propose the famous problem of the wife with the seven husbands. Jesus solved this problem by explaining that there is no marriage in heaven. He then goes on to prove the resurrection to them, by reminding them of the fact that God is called the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. But surely God is a God of the living, so Abraham, Isaac and Jacob must be living. (Mt 22:23-33) This argument, taken from the Pentateuch, was so convincing that the Sadducees were totally silenced.

The Scribes — Teachers of the Law

In reaction to the persecution of the Syrian kings, the study of the Law — which had already begun to flourish after the exile— became almost a passion. Every letter of the old Law ( Torah) was considered of the greatest importance. The teaching and the rules contained in the Law needed to be ever more faithfully explained and taught to others. It was natural that in this movement some outstanding men should rise as teachers. After some time this grew into an intricate system of instruction. Some learned men were recognized as 'teachers of the law' or 'scribes' They received the title of 'Rabbi' or 'Rabboni'. Such teachers attracted 'disciples' and taught them in a 'house of instruction'.

The instruction usually followed this procedure:

—The Rabbi would take one line from the Law, e.g. "You shall do no work on the Sabbath day, neither you, nor your servant,nor your maid servant..." (Ex 20:10f).

—He would then explain that there are thousands of applications that follow from this Law. Take for example, carrying burdens on the Sabbath. This is obviously forbidden as it means work. Now what about a woman wearing ornaments on the Sabbath? Would that be allowed? The Rabbi would explain that certain ornaments of bigger size would be considered a 'burden' in the opinion of the old teachers. Other ornaments could be worn. In some cases the teachers of old disagreed.

—After this explanation the Rabbi would sum up the conclusion in the words of tradition. This summary was repeated so often that the disciples could recite it by heart. An example of such a summary:

"With what on her person may a woman go out on the Sabbath? And with what may she not go out? A woman must not go out with linen or woollen laces; nor with straps on her head, because she cannot bathe with them on, but must first unfasten them: nor with a frontlet and pendants thereto (unless they are sewn to her cap); nor with the lining of the frontlet; nor with a golden ornament in the shape of a town; nor with a tight gold chain; nor with nose-rings; nor with finger-rings on which there is no seal; nor with a needle without any eye; (but if she has gone out with one of these last two things she is not too guilty: she need not bring the sin-offering)... A woman must not go out with a needle that has an eye; nor with a finger-ring that has a seal on it; nor with a turban-type headdress; nor with a smelling-bottle, or balm-flask.

(Rabbi Meir says that if she went out with any of these things she is guilty and bound to bring the sin-offering. But other teachers of old said that she would be allowed to take the smelling-bottle or balm-flask).

A woman may go out with plaits of hair, whether of her own hair or of another woman, or of an animal; with frontlets and pendants if they are sewn to her cap; with the lining of her frontlet or with false curls; with soft wool in her ear or soft wool in her shoe; with a grain of pepper or of salt or with whatever else she is accustomed to put into her mouth (provided she does not put it into her mouth especially on the Sabbath; and if she drop it from her mouth she may not pick it up again). Rabbi Meir allows her to wear a false tooth or a gilt tooth. Other teachers of old forbid it".

Quotation from ancient traditions on the Sabbath, going back to Jesus' time (MISHNAH, treatise Sabbath, VI, I, 3, 5).

Notice in the example, to what detailed prescriptions these laws were extended. We may admire the zeal displayed in it, but we shall also recognize the danger of legalism inherent in such prescriptions. Characteristic of rabbinical teaching is also the appeal to the teachings of certain Rabbis (such as Rabbi Meir) and to the teacher of former times.

The Pharisees

Pharisees were people who had separated themselves from the ordinary folk to live more saintly lives (Pharisee means 'the separated one'). In a certain sense Pharisees were like monks or like lay people of the so called 'third order': person who had made up their mind to serve God very strictly according to the law, and who had taken up some specially severe practices (extra fasts, long prayers, etc.).

The Pharisees were very much on the front line during the Hellenistic persecutions. They proved fanatical in their loyalty to the ancient practices and were extremely nationalistic. The Pharisees accepted the resurrection of the body, the existence of angels and God's direct providence in this world, as doctrines of faith.

Not every scribe was automatically a Pharisee, neither was every Pharisee a scribe. But in actual fact most Pharisees were scribes and most scribes were Pharisees. For this reason the two groups are considered practically identical in the Gospels.

The Pharisees were the fiercest opponents of the Sadducees. To highlight the differences between these two groups we will contrast them:

Jesus' Attitudes towards the Teachers of the Law

Jesus appreciated the good intentions and the valuable work of many scribes and Pharisees. A glance at the Gospel will suffice to convince us of this:

JESUS ADMITS THEIR AUTHORITY

—He acknowledges the teaching authority of the scribes, saying that people should follow their prescriptions, since 'they are sitting on the seat of Moses' (i.e. since they are the official proclaimers of the law. cf. Mt 23:2).

JESUS DEALS WITH THEM IN A FRIENDLY MANNER

—On various occasions we notice that Jesus has friendly relations with scribes. One scribe wants to become Jesus' disciple (Mt 8:19). Another scribe praises Jesus for having defeated the Sadducees on the question of the immortality of the soul (Lk 20:38). Jesus also praises a scribe for having answered the question concerning the principal law very aptly (Lk 10:28). One Pharisee invites Jesus to dinner and Jesus teaches quite a few lessons there (Lk 14:1-24). Perhaps the best example of friendship is the mention of the fact that some Pharisees warn Jesus against the wicked plans of Herod (Lk 13:31-33).

JESUS HAS SOME PARTICULAR FRIENDS AMONG THEM

—Some Pharisees with whom Jesus had contact are known to us by name. Nicodemus went to Jesus by night and listened to him for a long time (]n 3). On a later occasion he defends Jesus against the accusations made by other Pharisees (Jn 7:45-52), and after Jesus' death he assists in giving Him a worthy burial (Jn 19:39). Jesus was in the house of a Pharisee called Simon when Mary Magdalene came in to confess her sins (Lk 7:36-50). Gamaliel who defended the Apostles in the court case against Peter and John (Acts 5:34), must have listened to Jesus and must have known Him. This is all the more likely as St Stephen and St Paul, both disciples of Gamaliel, seem both to be deeply involved in the controversy about Jesus.

JESUS TEACHES AS A SCRIBE

—Jesus Himself acts as a scribe. He gathers disciples around Himself, and teaches them more or less as scribes would do. He is called a 'rabbi' by everyone, and He does not forbid them to do so (cf. Mt 26:25; Mk 10:51; Jn 20:16; etc). Even Jesus' Apostles are in a certain sense 'scribes'. For Jesus says that He will send them as 'scribes' (Mt 23:24) and He compares a 'scribe well versed in the Kingdom of Heaven' to the head of a family who brings new things and old ones from his store room (Mt 13:52).

And yet, there is a great difference between Jesus and the scribes. First of all, Jesus acted and spoke with power. The people noticed this immediately.

And when Jesus finished these sayings the crowds were amazed at his teaching. He wasn't like their teachers of the Law; instead He taught with authority." (Mt 7:28-29)

"The people who heard Him were amazed at the way He taught. He wasn't like the teachers of the Law instead, He taught with authority." (Mk 1:22)

"They said: 'What is this? Some kind of new teaching? This man has authority to give orders to evil spirits and they obey Him'!" ( 1:27)

In the Sermon on the Mount Jesus perfected the old commandments by His new law of charity (cf. Mt 5:21, 27, 31, 33, 38, 43). Some other existing regulations He changed drastically: He abolished the prescriptions of ritual uncleanliness (Mk 7:1-23; note vs. 19: "In saying this Jesus declared that all foods are fit to be eaten," i.e. ritually clean). Where other Rabbis discussed the various reasons for which divorce could be granted (as permitted in the Old Law), Jesus declares all divorce to be forbidden (Mt 19:3-9). Jesus acts with authority in performing all the miracles, and He gives this authority to His disciples. In this way Jesus stood out clearly from among the other scribes.

Secondly, Jesus had to correct the scribes in many respects. The Pharisees and scribes had deviated far from the true ideal of sanctity as God wanted to see it practised. Jesus taught and practised this new ideal and this provoked clashes.

JEWISH ACCUSATIONS AND JESUS' REPLIES

—The Pharisees accused Jesus mainly of the following faults:

a) Not keeping the traditional customs such as the ritual washing of hands before meals (Mt 15:Iff; Mk 7:1ff; Lk 11:37ff)

b) Eating with sinners. (Mt 9:11, 14; Mk 12:16; Lk 1:33)

c) Driving out devils through Beelzebub. (Mt 9:34; 12:2; Mk 2:24)

d) Performing miracles on the Sabbath. (Mt 12:9-13; Lk 13:10- 17; Lk 14: Iff.; Jn 5:1-18; Jn 9:1-17)

e) Claiming special authority, yes even equality with God the Father. (Jn 8:13; 5:19-47; etc.)

FURTHER DISCUSSIONS

—They sought, moreover, to compromise Jesus by initiating discussions on difficult subjects: Tax to be paid to the Roman Emperor (Mt 22:15), divorce(Mt 19:3), and divine signs (Mt 16:1-4). Eventually the discussions centred round Jesus' mission and His Person ("Son of David", Mt 22:42; "the Son," Jn 5:19-47; the "Bread of Life", Jn 6:25-59; etc.)

JESUS CONDEMNS PHARISAIC ATTITUDES

—At other times Jesus takes the initiative and points out mistakes in the teaching and in the attitude of the scribes and Pharisees. He warns His disciples against these mistakes. (Mt 16:1-6; Mk 8:llff.) Well known is Jesus' long sermon against the hypocrisy, legalism, formalism and pride of many scribes (Mt 23:1- 36; Lk 11:39-42). But notice how even this sermon ends in the passionate desire of Our Lord to bring these scribes too to conversion (Mt 23:37-39). The fanaticism of the Pharisees could not endure such opposition.

In their blindness they imagined Jesus to be the chief obstacle to the faithful observance of the Law. So they decided to kill Jesus. The Gospels mention Jesus' discourse on the Sabbath as the first occasion for this plot. It is after this discussion that they "go out and make plans to kill Jesus". (Mt 12:14; Mk 3:6) To many scribes the removal of Jesus may have seemed necessary for the good of religion. Their agitation against Him was due to their blindness and we know that Jesus fully realized this fact. That is why He could pray with such good reason: "Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do". (Lk 23:34; read also Jn 10:35-41; Mt 15:12-14)

The Sanhedrin

The Sanhedrin was the supreme religious council of the Jews at the time of Jesus. It surely also had some political power, but it functioned mainly as the highest tribunal and as the advisory board of the Highpriest in religious matters.

Three different groups made up the membership of the Sanhedrin:

i. The Highpriests: The ruling highpriest presided. Other members of the influential 'highpriestly' families had a vote in the deliberations.

ii. The Elders: They were various prominent persons, perhaps appointed because of their social position, merit, etc. (Joseph of Arimathea).

iii. The Scribes: The legal experts.

Whereas highpriests and elders could normally be reckoned to be Sadducees, the scribes were practically all Pharisees.

We meet the Sanhedrin in the Gospels as the official body through whose ruling Jesus' opponents had Him killed. At one session they took the formal decision to kill Jesus. (Jn 11:47-53) After Jesus' triumphant entry into Jerusalem they decided to do it quickly. (Mt 26:3-5) When Jesus had been arrested they condemned Him to death, probably in two sessions.(Mt 26:57-66; Lk 22:54-55, 63-71) Jesus is handed over to Pilate by official mandate of the Sanhedrin. (Mt 27:1-2; Jn 18:30) How truly had Jesus prayed: "Father... You have shown to the unlearned what You had hidden from the wise and learned...!". (Mt 11:25)